Sources of learning science: scored
Sources behind the learning-science claims, split into papers and scored practice pages. Method: multivocal-protocol.md.
Company pages and a working paper are tier 2. Scores come from one scorer, a first pass.
Grey sources, scored
| Key | Kind | Quality | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Duolingo 2026 | company blog by a company researcher, tier 2 | A3.5 M5.5 O1 D1 P1 N1 I0.5 T0.5 = 14 | review.md |
| Open Spaced Repetition 2026a | community benchmark (GitHub), tier 2 | A2.5 M5.5 O2 D0 P1 N1 I0.5 T0.5 = 13 | review.md |
| Oreopoulos 2026 | working paper, not peer reviewed (abstract page read), tier 2 | A3.5 M4.5 O2 D1 P0.5 N1 I0 T0.5 = 13 | against.md, review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Khan Academy 2024 | company efficacy report, tier 2 | A3 M5 O1 D1 P0.5 N0.5 I0.5 T0.5 = 12 | review.md |
| Open Spaced Repetition 2026b | community wiki (body text not captured), tier 3 | A2.5 M1.5 O0.5 D1 P1 N0 I0.5 T0 = 7 | review.md |
Formal sources
| Key | Kind | Used in |
|---|---|---|
| Adesope 2017 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Ainsworth 2006 | review | review.md |
| Alemdag 2025 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Alfieri 2013 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Amadieu 2009 | experiment | review.md |
| Barbieri 2023 | meta-analysis | against.md, review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Berney 2016 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Bisra 2018 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Blunt 2014 | experiment | review.md |
| Brunmair 2019 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Catrambone 1989 | experiment | review.md |
| Catrambone 1998 | experiment | review.md |
| Cepeda 2008 | experiment | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Clark 1991 | review | review.md |
| Costa 2022 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| DeStefano 2007 | review | review.md |
| Dickson 2005 | experiment | against.md |
| Doignon 1985 | theory paper | review.md |
| Donoghue 2021 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Dunlosky 2013 | review | review.md |
| Fang 2019 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Flanigan 2024 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Fyfe 2014 | review | against.md, review.md |
| Gentner 2003 | experiment | review.md |
| Gick 1983 | experiment | review.md |
| Ginns 2006 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Hamaker 1986 | review | review.md |
| Höffler 2007 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Kalyuga 2003 | review | review.md |
| Karpicke 2011 | experiment | review.md |
| Kester 2006 | experiment | review.md |
| Kiewra 1985 | experiment | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Klauer 1984 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Kobayashi 2005 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Kulik 1990 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Latimier 2021 | meta-analysis | against.md, review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Malashenko 2023 | experiment | review.md |
| Margulieux 2016 | experiment | review.md |
| Mayer 2001 | experiment | review.md |
| Mayer 2002 | experiment | review.md |
| Mayer 2020 | book, academic press synthesis | review.md |
| Morehead 2019 | experiment | review.md |
| Mueller 2014 | experiment | against.md, review.md |
| Nesbit 2006 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Newton 2017 | survey | against.md, review.md |
| Newton 2020 | review of surveys | against.md, review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Noetel 2022 | meta-meta-analysis | against.md, review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Paas 1994 | experiment | review.md |
| Pan 2023 | review | review.md |
| Pashler 2008 | review | against.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Ploetzner 2020 | review | review.md |
| Pollock 2002 | experiment | review.md |
| Ponce 2022 | meta-analysis | against.md, review.md |
| Rawson 2013 | experiment | review.md |
| Renkl 2004 | experiment | review.md |
| Richter 2016 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Rittle-Johnson 2007 | experiment | review.md |
| Robinson 1995 | experiment | review.md |
| Roediger 2006 | experiment | review.md |
| Rowland 2014 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Schneider 2018 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Schroeder 2018 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Schwartz 1998 | experiment | review.md |
| Sinha 2021 | meta-analysis | against.md, review.md |
| St. Hilaire 2023 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Sun 2021 | meta-analysis | review.md |
| Sundararajan 2020 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Sweller 2019 | review | review.md |
| Tetzlaff 2025 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Tversky 2002 | review | review.md |
| Urry 2021 | experiment | against.md, review.md |
| Yang 2021 | meta-analysis | review.md, state-of-the-art.md |
| Yeo 2019 | experiment | against.md, review.md |
| van Gog 2015 | review | against.md, state-of-the-art.md |